Articulates the main trends in the literature on corporate identity; defines corporate identity; explains the rationale for corporate identity management and describes the main methods used to reveal the desired and the actual corporate identity. Particular reference will be made to two recently developed models used to reveal an organization's identity: Balmer's Affinity Audit (BAA) and The Rotterdam Organizational Identification Test (ROIT). Concludes that while empirical research on the area will increasingly be multidisciplinary marketing will, nonetheless, play a pivotal role in an understanding of corporate identity.

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European

Journal

of Marketing

31,5/6

340

Corporate identity: the

concept, its measurement and

management

Cees B.M. van Riel

Graduate School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam,

The Netherlands, and

John M.T. Balmer

Department of Marketing, University of Strathclyde Business School,

Glasgow, UK

Corporate identity: clarifying the concept

There are divergent views within the literature as to what is meant by corporate

identity. In this article the authors refer to three main developments in the area

which variously equate corporate identity with graphic design, with integrated

corpor ate communication and last, with a multidisciplinary approach which

draws heavily on organizational behaviour. Each of the three approaches has

tended to follow a separate line of development and it would appear that the

literature on each of the three strands has started to reach maturity.

Increasingly, writers are drawing on several of these strands and this has led to

a multidisciplinary approach. The characteristics of each of the three

aforementioned strands will be discussed in the next section.

Corporate identity: the graphic design paradigm

Originally, co rporate identity was synonymous with organizational

nomenclature, logos, company housestyle and visual identification. Many

corpor ate identity practitioners had (and have) their roots in graphic design and

understandably a good deal of importance was assigned to graphic design. The

authors contend that graphic designers have been hugely influential in two

regards, in that they articulated the basic tenets of co rporate identity formation

and management and succeeded in keeping the subject on the agenda of senior

managers. Of note are North American practitioners who were the first to create

managerial interest in the area and include Selame and Selame (1975), Margulies

(1977), Carter (1982) and Chajet (1992). They were followed by UK design and

communications consultants such as Olins (1978, 1989), Bernstein (1986),

Jackson (1987), Ind (1990) and Pilditch (1970) and then by German (Birkight and

Stadler, 1980), Dutch (Blauw, 1989) and French (Hebert 1987) practitioners.

The role of symbolism is now assigned a greater role and has grown from its

original purpose of increasing organizational visibility to a position where it is

seen as having a role in communicating co rporate strategy. Notable with regard to

the latter is Olins (1978) who classified visual identity into three main types

European Journal of Marketing,

Vol. 31 No. 5/6, 1997, pp. 340-355.

© MCB University Press, 0309-0566

Corporate

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341

(monolithic, endorsed and branded) which he observed was used by organizations

to reflect an organization's strategy, branding and communications policies.

Corporate identity: the integrated communication paradigm

The realization by graphic designers and marketers of the efficacy of

consistency in visual and marketing communications led to a number of

authors arguing that there should be consistency in formal corporate

communication (Bernstein, 1986; Schultz, Tannenbaum and Lauterborn, 1994).

The breadth, complexity, and importance of corporate communications was

pointed out by Bernstein who argued that organizations should communicate

effectively with all of their stakeholders. Implicit in Bernstein's (1986)

comments, and those made more recently by Grunig (1992), is that the

corpor ate communication mix and its management is fundamentally different

from and is more complicated than, the marketing communications mix.

Corporate identity: the interdisciplinary paradigm (marshalling the corporate

identity mix)

Starting with Olins (1978) and followed by Birkight and Stadler (1980) the

understanding of corpor ate identity has gradually broadened and is now taken

to indicate the way in which an organization's identity is revealed through

behaviour, communications, as well as through symbolism to internal and

external audiences. Both academics and consultants have realized that defining

identity can be problematic and as such the recently formed International

Corporate Identity Group (ICIG) whose steering committee includes academics

from Strathclyde, Erasmus and Harvard Business Schools, together with leading

consultants, have decided not to give a definition of corporate identity but rather

a statement which articulates the multidisciplinary nature of the area and its

difference from brand management. The so called "Strathclyde Statement" will

be found in the Appendix.

In recent years academics have produced important work on the area such as

Abratt (1989), Albert and Whetten (1985), Balmer (1994, 1995), Larçon and

Rietter (1979), Ramanantsoa (1989), van Rekom (1993), van Riel (1992, 1995) and

Wiedmann (1988). Increasingly academics acknowledge that a corporate

identity refers to an organization's unique characteristics which are rooted in

the behaviour of members of the organization. Many of the above scholars

conclude that the management of an organization's identity is of strategic

importance and requires a multidisciplinary approach. They argue that senior

managers can narrow the gap between the actual and desired corporate identity

through marshalling the corporate identity mix (communications, symbolism

and behaviour).

Corporate identity management (CIM)

The rationale for CIM

The objective of CIM is to establish a favourable reputation with an organization's

stakeholders which it is hoped will be translated by such stakeholders into a

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propensity to buy that organization's products and services, to work for or to

invest in the organization (Balmer, 1995; van Riel, 1995). There is evidence to

support the notion that a favourable corporate reputation gives an organization a

competitive advantage (Beatty and Ritter, 1986; Caves and Porter, 1977; Fombrun

and Shanley, 1990; Greyser, 1996; Klein and Leffler, 1981; Maathuis, 1993;

Milgrom and Roberts, 1986; Stigler, 1962; Wilson, 1985 and Worcester, 1986).

The literature on corporate identity sees co rporate identity management as

taking into account an organization's historical roots (Ramanantsoa, 1989) its

personality (Balmer, 1995; Birkight and Stadler, 1980; Olins, 1978), its corporate

strategy (Wiedmann, 1988) and the three parts of the corporate identity mix

(behaviour of organizational members, communication and symbolism) in order

to acquire a favourable corporate reputation (Fombrun 1996) which results in

improved organizational performance (Fombrun and Shanley, 1989; Wang,

1994). Reputation and performance are also influenced by developments in the

external environment such as changes in the behaviour of competitors, as well

as by corporate stakeholders such as customers, personnel and government.

Schematically, this is shown in Figure 1.

Methods used to reveal the actual corporate identity

Determining the actual corporate identity

During the last decade, several methods have been developed which have the

objective of revealing an organization's actual corporate identity. Many of the

available methods come from "traditional" consumer behaviour research, which

draws on survey techniques in order to ascertain an organization's external

image (Gray, 1985; Poiesz, 1988). Such methods have been adopted for use

within organizations (De Cock, 1984 and Keller, 1990). Other methods have also

been advocated including the use of semi-structured interviews (Bernstein,

1986; Lux, 1986), ethnography (Balmer, 1996) and heuristic analyses of

historical sources (Ramanantsoa, 1989).

Figure 1.

Interaction between

corporate identity

formation, reputation,

improvement and

organizational

performance

Culture

history

Corporate

strategy

CI-mix

Behaviour

Communications

Symbolism

Corporate

reputation

Organizational

performance

• financial

performance

• sales

• environment

• HRM

• etc

Environment

Source: van Reil Balmer (nd)

Corporate

identity

343

A popular method used by design consultancies and others is the visual audit

which has the objective of revealing some of the basic traits of an organization's

identity (Napoles, 1988; Olins, 1989) by interpreting organizational symbolism.

More academic in character is heuristic analysis which examines an

organization's historical roots and looks for areas of conflict within the

organization (Ramanantsoa, 1989). Balmer's (1996) affinity audit (BAA) is a

specialized method using the principles of ethnography. This requires wide

access within an organization and combines a number of qualitative methods of

data collection such as semi-structured interviews, observation and an

examination of documentary evidence. There is also the laddering technique

which relies on means-end interviews resulting in Hierarchical Value Maps

(van Rekom, 1994) and the Rotterdam Organizational Identification Test

(ROIT) (van Riel, Smidts and Pruyn, 1994) which reveals the degree of

acceptance by personnel of the desired corporate identity as articulated by

senior managers.

The following section provides an explanation of three of the above methods:

the laddering technique, Balmer's affinity audit (BAA) and the Rotterdam

Organizational Identification Test (ROIT).

Laddering technique

The laddering technique was originally developed to determine the image of

products and brands. It is based on the central notion of the means-end theory, as

developed by Reynolds and Gutman (1988), which explains human behaviour as

a series of "meant-end" actions. People act purposely "applying means" to

achieve "ends" such as earning money, getting external respect, etc. Ends are

classified hierarchically from abstract attributes to functional consequences. The

values which are important to employees are ascertained by asking the question

"What is important to you?" The question is repeated until a chain of meanings

is built up which leads through levels of increasing abstraction from the concrete

attribute, via its consequences, to the underlying values. Van Rekom (1993)

transformed the technique to the area of corporate identity. The laddering

method (Van Rekom, 1993) is useful in that it helps to explain what is important

to employees. The method includes open interviews whereby employees are

asked to describe what they do (i.e. their job description), how they do it (i.e. their

work activities), why they work in this way (i.e. behaviour) and why they

consider this type of behaviour to be important.

The objective of this is to describe the behaviour of personnel and to reveal

important insights with regards to the dominant values of individual

employees. In their aggregate, the values of personnel give important insights

into an organization's identity.

Balmer's affinity audit (BAA)

This method has the objective of explaining the driving forces which sustain an

organization's corporate identity. Balmer's (1996) audit grew out of his research

on the identity of BBC Scotland. His methodology used the principles of

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grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This resulted in the hypothesis that

corpor ate identity formation is grounded in a basic social psychological process

(BSPP) based on affinity. The research showed that the basic social

psychological process (bspp) underpinning co rpor ate identity was complex and

multilayered in that personnel had an affinity with a range of values and beliefs.

These values and beliefs take many different forms including those of the

organization's founder, those of the holding organization, those of the subsidiary

and business units, those of a professional class and those of an external culture.

Balmer is of the view that the composite of values and beliefs forms the

corporate personality which he sees as a key determinant of an organization's

corpor ate identity.

Balmer's affinity audit (BAA) requires the researcher to gain wide access

within the organization in order to reveal the dominant systems of values and

beliefs. Researching the system of values and beliefs is achieved by referring to

the everyday language, ideologies, rituals and beliefs of personnel (Pettigrew

1979). As such, the researcher relies on a variety of methods of data collection,

i.e. semi-structured interviews, observation and an examination of

organizational documentation. In analysing the data the coding process

advocated by Glaser and Strauss (1967) is used. Figure 2 illustrates the basic

steps involved in the audit.

The BAA involves a basic four stage process:

(1) establish the corporate mission and strategy;

(2) reveal the dominant systems of values and beliefs within the

organization;

(3) evaluate such systems of values and beliefs against the co rporate

mission and strategy; and

(4) nurture those values and beliefs which support the co rporate mission

and strategy.

The audit has certain similarities with the type of research undertaken by

classic co rporate identity consultants in that it requires first, wide access to the

organization under study and second, relies exclusively on qualitative methods

of data collection. The advantage of the audit is that it reveals the organization's

corporate personality: this being a prerequisite to an understanding of the

organization's identity. This has been pointed out several times over the last 15

years by Olins (1978, 1995) who explained that the tangible manifestation of a

corporate personality is its corporate identity.

Balmer is of the view that it might be possible to develop a similar audit

which is undertaken among an organization's external stakeholders. The

results of such an audit may be of use in determining the branding structure to

be adopted (parent visibility) in devising corporate communication strategies

and even whether or not there needs to be a change in corporate mission and

strategy. Figure 3 is a conceptual model based on the above.

Corporate

identity

345

The Rotterdam Organizational Identification Test (ROIT)

The view that the behaviour of personnel has a direct effect on an organization's

corporate identity and image (Kennedy, 1977) would clearly suggest that

personnel should identify with an organization's ideals and goals. While

effective employee communication is one method of meeting this objective,

other elements are of at least equal importance such as job satisfaction,

management style, corporate culture and perceived organizational prestige.

The impact of these variables on employee identification with the company can

be measured with the help of the so called ROIT scale (Rotterdam

Organizational Identification Scale (van Riel et al., 1994). The preliminary model

of the ROIT scale consists of the focal points shown in Figure 4.

The central point on the ROIT scale is the identification of an employee with

his or her organization. Based on the concept of social identity (Ellemers, 1991)

together with other relevant literature (Cheney, 1983; Mael and Asforth, 1991;

Figure 2.

Basic steps in managing

the corporate

personality

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Figure 3.

Conceptual model based

on Balmer's affinity

audit (BAA)

Corporate

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347

Mowaday, Steers and Porter, 1979) a 15-item organizational scale was

constructed, including affective elements, but excluding behavioural intent. In

order to determine an individual's strength of identification with an

organization, it needs to be established whether there is:

• a feeling of belonging;

• congruency between organizational goals and values;

• positive organizational membership;

• organizational support;

• recognition of distinct contributions;

• a feeling of acceptance; and

• security.

These aspects were used as a basis of a 15-measure scale to measure

organizational identification. The complete questionnaire consists of 225 Likert

statements to which the respondents have to indicate their degree of agreement

or disagreement (on five point scales). The questionnaire is divided into four

modules (see Figure 4: A, B, C, D). In addition to the measurement of OI

(organizational identification) (A) the five antecedents of OI are ascertained, (B

+ C) (perceived organizational prestige, job satisfaction, implementation of

goals, organizational culture and employee communication), followed by

questions about employee communication (C) and personal and organizational

characteristics (D).

Figure 4.

Preliminary model

ROIT scale

Background characteristics personal

and organizational

D

Perceived

organizational

prestige

Job

satisfaction

Goals and

values

Organizational

culture

B

A

Employee communication

C

Organizational identification

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Applying the ROIT survey enables management to detect "weak spots" (to

be located in one of the five "antecedents") in the organization, creating or

avoiding a supportive attitude towards the company as a whole (e.g. IBM

worldwide) or predominantly towards only the part of the company in which

they are operating (e.g. IBM France, sales department, etc.).

The ROIT scale is a "standardized" instrument, to be used to measure the

actual corporate identity. It is easy and cheap to apply. However, the method

does not reveal the nature of the corporate identity of a company since it only

provides information about the consequences of a given c orporate identity.

Determining the desired characteristics of a corporate identity

Establishing the desired corporate identity entails "positioning" the entire

company. Some authors describe this as "corporate branding" (Balmer, 1995) or

vertical brand image transfer (van Riel and Maathuis, 1993).

The problem in establishing the desired corporate identity is that many of the

available methods were developed for the positioning of product brands rather

than the corporate brand. The IDU method of Rossiter and Percy (1982) is one of

these methods but it can be adapted for use in determining an organization's

desired identity. This method is aimed at the discovery of those benefits that are

perceived by key stakeholders (especially external) as important ("I"), being

delivered by the organizations ("D") and finally are perceived as unique, or

better, or distinctive ("U") when compared to other organizations. The IDU

method can only be applied by using quantitative (survey) research.

Revealing the desired corporate identity can also be undertaken in a more

pragmatic and less time-consuming way. This can be done with the help of the

Spiderweb method (Bernstein, 1986) (Figure 5). This is a qualitative technique,

based on a group discussion with top management, communication managers

and one or more representatives of the organization's business units. An external

consultant leads the discussion, stimulating participants to describe their

organization first in general terms (how do you describe your company at a

party?), followed by more specific descriptions to be summarized in individual

formulation of concrete characteristics of the company. This will result in a large

amount of attributes (on an average ten per person). During the next stage of the

Spiderweb method, participants have to choose, again individually, the eight

most important characteristics. The session is nearly completed when all

participants fill out a form rating the finally selected eight characteristics with a

school figure (from one to ten), regarding the actual (perceived) and the desired

corpor ate identity. The aggregated averaged group score will be presented in a

wheel with eight spokes, representing a ten point-scale, with the zero value in the

middle (centre) and the maximum ten value at the end of each spoke. This will

result in a representation of the ideal attributes of the corporate identity. Figure

5 shows the attributes as found recently in a Dutch company.

Managing the corporate identity programme (CIP)

Much space has been devoted in literature to the ideal way of setting up an

effective corporate identity programme (Abratt, 1989; Balmer, 1995; Cutlip,

Corporate

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349

Center and Broom, 1994; Dowling, 1986, 1994; Grunig and Hunt, 1984; Olins,

1978; Van Riel, 1995). They all provide various checklists, and action plans,

which can be helpful in decision making. Many of these plans have a great deal

in common in that they tend to adopt a basic four-stage process:

(1) problem recognition;

(2) development of strategies;

(3) execution of action plan; and

(4) implementation.

These plans are not "traditional" multi-phase plans, but iterative search

processes. Most corporate identity programmes (CIP) are a result of internal

change (reorganization, employee reductions) or external turbulence

(privatization, merger, threat of decreased market share). Before embarking on

a plan of action, senior managers should consider the organization's original as

well as current identity (Wilkinson and Balmer, 1996), following Balmer's (1994)

adage that organizations in examining their past often find their future.

Furthermore, the above plans begin by examining the relative strengths and

weaknesses vis-à-vis the external environment and whether the current or

original identity failed through a mismanagement of the corpor ate identity mix.

Only if the results of the above suggest that a new identity is required and when

the organization has ascertained the image of its many stakeholders should an

action plan be developed.

Figure 5.

Bernstein's spiderweb

method

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If a new identity is required, the organization's new strategy will also require

a new communication profiling strategy. The implementation of the profiling

strategy takes five core elements into consideration:

(1) defining the communication objectives (cognitive, affective and conative);

(2) choosing the target groups to communicate with (perhaps by applying

the linkage model of Grunig and Hunt (1984) for corpor ate stakeholders);

(3) segmenting commercial audiences (using the model of Rossiter and

Percy (1987)) before choosing the most effective channels to create

awareness and appreciation among selected audiences;

(4) identifying the key message of the corporate identity programme, i.e.

what should be said and how. And, last;

(5) organizing the co rporate identity programme.

This will invariably involve senior managers from a variety of departments

including different communication specialists. The main tasks will be to ensure

consistency between behaviour and corporate communication as well as

evaluating the programme in order to determine whether or not the objectives

have been met, e.g. analysing changes in knowledge, attitude and behavioural

intent. The above described process is illustrated in Figure 6 (van Riel, 1995).

Concluding remarks

The corpus of knowledge on corporate identity is beginning to reach maturity.

Management academics are showing a renewed interest in the area who, in

addition to marketers, include those undertaking research in organizational

behaviour, human resources, strategic movement, graphic design, public

relations and communication studies.

The multidisciplinary character of the area has long been recognized by

consultancies who employ the skills of experts drawn from different disciplines.

This multidisciplinary approach may also be usefully applied by management

academics in order to provide knowledge that is based on a more intense

dialogue and greater cross-disciplinary research. Marketing has the potential to

make an important contribution in this respect since marketing is expanding

into new areas which have direct and indirect links to corporate identity such as

social marketing, marketing of services and the recent interest in corporate

branding.

Several areas deserve the attention of empirical research, including an

explanation of the corporate identity formation process. Another is applying

the techniques of the corporate identity management to related areas, i.e.

generic identities (banks, building societies), national identities (Scotland as a

brand) and professional identities (solicitors, teachers, dentists). The impact of

strategic alliances on corporate identities is also likely to be a fruitful area of

research and is also highly topical.

Future research in corporate identity is likely to benefit from an

interdisciplinary approach. The authors predict that in time there will be a large

Corporate

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351

and distinctive body of knowledge on corporate identity coupled with a

realization by both academics and practitioners that a favourable corporate

identity is one of an organization's most important assets and therefore is

Figure 6.

Corporate identity

programme

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worthy of constant management attention. As such, the writers anticipate

corporate identity studies occupying a place of importance in marketing and

business courses in the early years of the next millennium.

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Appendix: The International Corporate Identity Group's (ICIG) statement on

corporate identity

The Strathclyde Statement

Every organization has an identity. It articulates the corporate ethos, aims and values and

presents a sense of individuality that can help to differentiate the organization within its

competitive environment.

When well managed, corporate identity can be a powerful means of integrating the many

disciplines and activities essential to an organization's success. It can also provide the visual

cohesion necessary to ensure that all corporate communications are coherent with each other and

result in an image consistent with the organization's defining ethos and character.

By effectively managing its corporate identity an organization can build understanding and

commitment among its diverse stakeholders. This can be manifested in an ability to attract and

retain customers and employees, achieve strategic alliances, gain the support of financial markets

and generate a sense of direction and purpose. Corporate identity is a strategic issue.

Corporate identity differs from traditional brand marketing since it is concerned with all of an

organization's stakeholders and the multi-faceted way in which an organization communicates.

Balmer, J.M.T.

Bernstein, D.

Day, A.

Greyser, S.

Ind, N.

Lewis, S.

Ludlow, C.

Markwick, N.

Riel, van C.

Thomas, S.

This is a revised version of the original statement which was drafted at Strachur, Argyll,

Scotland, on 17 and 18 February 1995.

  • Brighton Nyagadza Brighton Nyagadza
  • Gideon Mazuruse

The research study explored the role of Public Relations (PR) elements such as seminars and speeches, digital media in creating a positive corporate image and corporate identity and explored how selected private colleges in Chitungwiza, Zimbabwe can leverage on publicity to boost students' enrolment. Extant literature of PR was approached and the Hedging and Wedging theory of communication was used as the theoretical framework for the research. The researcher applied mixed-pluralist research approach, where the qualitative research design was nested into partially quantitative research design. Methodology applied was exploratory, deductively anchored on the critical analysis of the data and discussion of findings to arrive at an informed decision. A purposive sample of 300 students, 30 teachers, 10 college directors and 30 administrators and self-administered closed-ended questionnaires were used in different private colleges. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) using AMOS version 6 software, was used to test the propositions. Major findings are that seminars and speeches are less frequently than other digital PR approaches done in private colleges and this can affect the students' enrolment and survival of the former. Recommendations included the need to make an improvement on carrying out frequently on the seminars and speeches, so as to enhance public image of the former. Budgeting for the PR function in private colleges is crucial. Students need to be involved in the publicity activities of a private college.

The objective of this paper is to analyse the relationship between corporate identity and loyalty in a public institution of higher education in an institutional crisis context. Moreover, the aim is to study the possible moderating effect that brand identification can have on this relationship. The information required to conduct the empirical analysis was obtained from an online survey. Data processing was carried out using the PLS‐SEM technique. The results obtained show that in an institutional crisis context, corporate identity influences university loyalty positively and significantly. However, it is detected that brand identification moderates the relationship between corporate identity and loyalty positively and significantly in an institutional crisis situation. In addition, we also observe that this moderating effect is greater in students than in graduates. It is considered a useful contribution, as it is one of the first studies in which the proposed relationships are analysed in an institutional crisis context. In addition, there is a concern about investigating the possible existence of the moderating role exerted by brand identification and if there are significant differences between students and graduates in this moderating effect. Significant practical implications arise from the results of this work, which can be particularly useful for managers of the type of organizations analysed.

  • Pedro Mir Pedro Mir

The vitality of the Internet highlights the research relevance that online reputation studies are acquiring. Most available research suggests that online reputation might also be managed (Online Reputation Management, ORM). However, technology development has given consumers a digital fingerprint and impact on a brand reputation. Therefore, brand reputation management is eventually limited to some tools. A literature review was conducted to pay attention to the most important emerging research topics on the field and to identify interesting research areas.

It can be seen that due to increasing importance of public relation efforts, mega universities started to assign more place to corporate identity elements in their web pages. Those universities also include visual corporate identity in their web pages. Those institutions may differentiate themselves from other universities only via their corporate identities. Corporate identity studies are of importance for increasing awareness on the institution and promoting recognizability. The aim of current study is to reveal the way mega universities utilize web pages as public relations tools in order to provide information on their corporate identities to the target audience. As a consequence of this examination, practices are revealed which are implemented by mega universities with tremendous target audience in order to take attention of the target audience and introduce the institution.

  • Theo H Veldsman Theo H Veldsman
  • Dieter Veldsman

Orientation: Organisations are embedded in an emerging, radically and fundamentally changing world of work is forcing them to consider deeper issues such as who are we? and why do we exist? Research purpose: To problematise critically the current organisational identity (OI) literature's power to provide deep insight into practice based findings resulting from an OI intervention in a major global, South African organisation. Part 1 covers the research purpose and approach; describes the large-scale OI intervention reported on; and problematises critically the thinking framework of OI: its meta-theoretical lenses, vocabulary and meta-theoretical framework. Motivation for the study: In this world, OI has become critically important as a secure and referent anchor. Research approach/design and method: Conventional or non-conventional grounded theory was utilised. We moved the data generated from the lived, enacted experiences of participants to existing theory and then used the generated findings to question OI theory by validating in an exploratory manner it to expose the current literature's strengths, weaknesses and blind spots from a practice or practitioner's power of understanding vantage point. Main Findings: From a practice perspective, the OI literature was highly relevant, robust and valid in making sense of and giving meaning to what was observed during the OI intervention. However, practice-wise, a number of significant weaknesses also were uncovered. Practical/managerial implications: The current IO literature proved with some limitations to be of practice utility. Contribution or value-add: Theoretical and practical recommendations were made to strengthen the existing OI literature from a practice perspective.

Blockchain is a technology that helps produce virtual identities in the digital environment using the real identity and allows using these identities both in digital environment and in real environment. In a way, this has brought about a different dimension for the virtual identity concept and content produced in social network environments. Today, a blockchain-based virtual identity is no longer a really different identity; instead, it now has a form that allows individuals to produce and manage their virtual identities and facilitates their lives. In addition, its usage potential has led to the use of blockchain for institutional purposes. It is now possible for institutions to interact with their stakeholders via their institutional virtual identities. Virtual identities play an important facilitator role in communication to be established by educational institutions with their students especially at higher education level. The facilitator effects of technology in individuals' real lives will make important contributions to the usage potential of the blockchain technology.

Integrated corporate communication is relevant in the strategic management process with its focus on shaping consistent messages to strategic stakeholders, sustaining corporate communication narratives on social media sites, and aligning communication strategies with organizational goals. To stimulate further debate and identify areas of agreement, we suggest that the strategic value of integrated corporate communication (ICC) is in recognizing the unique interests and objectives associated with different functions of corporate communication while at the same time considering the cross-functional synergy as a knowledge transformation mechanism. The Competing Values Framework (CVF) is articulated as a lens with which functions of corporate communication can be grouped and differentiated according to common principles and practices. The CVF is beneficial for assessing the potential gap between expectations of stakeholders and corporate communication responses and for developing focused strategies that strengthen the reputational assets of companies. We illustrate the strategic value of the integrated approach in providing a consequential view of corporate communication events and activities through Chipotle's strategic responses to the E. coli outbreak in 2015–2017. Practical implications and directions for future research are also provided.